Like thieves that constantly look for ways to evade capture, Salmonella enterica, a disease-causing bacterium, uses various tactics to escape the human body’s defense mechanisms. In a new study, researchers from the Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology (MCB), IISc, highlight two such strategies that the bacterium uses to protect itself, both driven by the same protein.
When Salmonella enters the human body, each bacterial cell resides within a bubble-like structure known as Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV). In response to the bacterial infection, the immune cells in our body produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), along with pathways triggered to break down these SCVs and fuse them with cellular bodies called lysosomes or autophagosomes, which destroy the bacteria. However, these bacteria have developed robust mechanisms to maintain vacuolar integrity, which is crucial for their survival. For example, when a bacterial cell divides, the vacuole surrounding it also divides, enabling every new bacterial cell to be ensconced in a vacuole. This also ensures that more vacuoles are present than the number of lysosomes which can digest them.
In the study published in Microbes and Infection, the IISc team deduced that a critical protein produced by Salmonella, known as SopB, prevents both the fusion of SCV with lysosomes as well as the production of lysosomes, in a two-pronged approach to protect the bacterium. “[This] gives the upper hand to bacteria to survive inside macrophages or other host cells,” explains Ritika Chatterjee, former PhD student in MCB and first author of the study. The experiments were carried out on immune cell lines and immune cells extracted from mice models.
SopB acts as a phosphatase – it aids in removing phosphate groups from phosphoinositide, a type of membrane lipid. SopB helps Salmonella change the dynamics of the vacuole – specifically it alters the type of inositol phosphates in the vacuole membrane – which prevents the vacuole’s fusion with lysosomes.
A previous study from the same team had reported that the number of lysosomes produced by the host cells decreases upon infection with Salmonella. The researchers also found that mutant bacteria that were unable to produce SopB were also unable to reduce host lysosome numbers. Therefore, they decided to look more closely at the role that SopB was playing in the production of lysosomes, using advanced imaging techniques.
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What they found was that SopB prevents the translocation of a critical molecule called Transcription Factor EB (TFEB) from the cytoplasm of the host cell into the nucleus. This translocation is vital because TFEB acts as a master regulator of lysosome production.
This is the first time we deciphered that SopB can work in a dual manner – it changes the phosphoinositide dynamics of SCV and affects TFEB’s translocation into the nucleus. While other groups have already reported the function of SopB in mediating invasion in epithelial cells, the novelty of our study lies in identification of the function of SopB in inhibiting the vacuolar fusion with existing autophagosomes/lysosomes, and the second mechanism, which provides Salmonella with a survival advantage by increasing the ratio of SCV to lysosomes.”
Dipshikha Chakravortty, Professor at MCB and corresponding author of the study
The researchers suggest that using small molecule inhibitors against SopB or activators of TFEB can help counter Salmonella infection.
In subsequent studies, the team plans to explore the role of another host protein called Syntaxin-17 whose levels also reduce during Salmonella infection. “How do the SCVs reduce the levels of Syntaxin-17? Do they exchange it with some other molecules, or do the bacteria degrade it? We [plan to] look into it next,” says Chakravortty.
Chatterjee, R., et al. (2023) Deceiving The Big Eaters: Salmonella Typhimurium SopB subverts host cell Xenophagy in macrophages via dual mechanisms. Microbes and Infection. doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2023.105128.
Thought LeadersDr. Sandor KasasResearch LeadEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
News Medical speaks with Dr. Sandor Kasas, a lead researcher at Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne in Switzerland. Here we discuss his recent development of a novel and highly efficient method for rapid antibiotic susceptibility testing using optical microscopy.
The new technique, known as Optical Nanomotion Detection (ONMD), is an extremely rapid, label-free, and single-cell sensitive method to test for antibiotic sensitivity. ONMD requires only a traditional optical microscope equipped with a camera or mobile phone. The simplicity and efficiency of the technique could prove to be a game changer in the field of antibiotic resistance.
Please can you introduce yourself, tell us about your career background, and what inspired your career in biology and medicine?
I graduated in medicine but never practiced in hospitals or medical centers. After my studies, I started working as an assistant in histology at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland. My first research projects included image processing, scanning tunneling, and atomic force microscopy.
Later, and for most of the rest of my scientific carrier, I focused primarily on the biological applications of AFM. For the past ten years, my research interest is about nanomotion, i.e., the study of oscillations at a nanometric scale of living organisms.
Image Credit: dominikazara/Shutterstock.com
You started working on biological applications of the atomic force microscope (AFM) in 1992. From your perspective, how has the antibiotic resistance landscape changed over the last two decades? What role has the advancement in technology played in furthering our understanding?
In the early ’90s, the AFM was mainly used for imaging. Later, AFM microscopists noticed that the instrument could also be used to explore the mechanical properties of living organisms. More recently, many “exotic” applications of the AFM have emerged, such as its use to weigh single cells or study their oscillations at the nanometric scale. In the 1990s, antibiotic resistance was not as serious a problem as today, but several teams were already using AFM to assess the effects of antibiotics on bacterial morphology.
The first investigations were limited to structural changes, but later, as the fields of application of AFM expanded, the instrument made it possible to monitor the mechanical properties of the bacterial cell wall upon exposure to antibiotics. In the 2010s, with G. Longo and G. Dietler, we demonstrated that AFM could also track nanoscale oscillations of living organisms. The very first application we had in mind was using the instrument to perform rapid antibiotic susceptibility testing.
We have therefore developed devices based on dedicated AFM technology to perform fast AST (i.e., in 2-4h). AFM-based nanomotion detection instruments are already implemented in medical centers in Switzerland, Spain, and Austria. However, this type of device has some drawbacks, including the need to fix the organism of interest on a cantilever. To overcome this limitation, we have developed with R. Willaert a nanomotion detector based on an optical microscope.
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Your most recent research has led to the development of a novel and highly efficient technique for rapid antibiotic susceptibility testing using optical microscopy. Please could you tell us why the development of rapid, affordable, and efficient testing methods is so important in the world of antimicrobial resistance?
Rapid antibiotic susceptibility testing could reduce the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. Traditional ASTs based on replication rate require 24 hours (but up to 1 month in the case of tuberculosis) to identify the most effective antibiotic. Doctors prescribe broad-spectrum antibiotics between the patient’s admission to a medical center and the results of the AST.
These drugs quickly improve patients’ conditions but, unfortunately, promote resistance. A rapid AST that could identify the most suitable antibiotic within 2-4 hours would eliminate broad-spectrum antibiotics and increase treatment efficiency and reduce the development of resistant bacterial strains. Since bacterial resistance is a global problem, rapid ASTs should also be implemented in developing countries. Therefore, affordable and simple-to-use tests are needed.
Image Credit: Fahroni/Shutterstock.com
Were there any limitations and obstacles you faced in the research process? If so, how did you overcome them?
Antibiotic sensitivity detection with ONMD is very similar to the AFM-based technique. As long as the bacterium is alive, it oscillates; if the antibiotic is effective, it kills the micro-organism, and its oscillations stop. The first limitation we faced when developing the ONMD was our microscopes’ depth of field of view. To prevent the bacteria from leaving the focal plane of the optical microscope during the measurement, we had to constrain the microbes into microfluidic channels a few micrometers high.
Microfabrication of such devices is relatively straightforward in an academic environment, but we were looking for simpler solutions. One option for constructing such a device is to use 10-micron double-sided rubber tape. It allows you to “build” a microfluidic chamber in 5 minutes with two glass coverslips and a puncher.
Another challenge was nanoscale motion detection. For this purpose, we used freely available cross-correlation algorithms that achieve sub-pixel resolution. (i.e., a few nanometers). We first developed the ONMD for larger organisms, such as yeast cells, and expanded the method to bacteria. This further development took us around two years.
You worked alongside Dr. Ronnie Willaert, a professor of structural biology at Vrije Universiteit Brussel, on developing this new rapid AST technique. How did your areas of expertise and research backgrounds complement each other in developing ONMD?
R. Willaert is an expert in yeast microbiology and microfluidics, while our team in Lausanne is primarily involved in AFM-based nanomotion detection and applying AFM to clinically relevant problems. The two teams were supported by a joint grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) which enabled the development of the method.
The field of antimicrobial resistance requires a high level of international collaboration, with everyone working together to achieve a common goal. With antimicrobial resistance rising to dangerously high levels in all parts of the world, how important is collaboration in this field?
Our project required expertise in various fields, such as microbiology, microscopy, microfluidics, programming, and data processing. In the development of rapid AST instruments and many others, only a multidisciplinary approach and close collaboration between teams with complementary expertise is today the only path to success.
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You and Dr. Willaert have said, ‘The simplicity and efficiency of the method make it a game-changer in the field of AST.’ Can you please expand on what makes ONMD a game changer in the AST field and what implications this research could have in clinical and research settings?
As mentioned earlier, bacterial resistance is a global health problem. Rapid AST should also be easily implemented in developing countries to limit the spread of resistant strains. The cheaper and simpler the technique, the more likely it is to be used on a large scale. We are convinced that the ONMD approach can meet these requirements. ONMD could also be used for drug discovery or basic research.
While we recognize the importance of rapid AST, what next steps must be taken before this technique can be used globally in research and clinical landscapes?
For fundamental research, there are no other important developments to be made. Any reasonably equipped research center can implement the technique and use it. Regarding implementing the technique in developing countries or extreme environments, stand-alone devices have to be used, which have yet to be manufactured.
There is a rapidly expanding need for efficient AST globally; however, the need for affordable, accessible, and simple techniques are of grave importance in developing countries disproportionately affected by antibiotic resistance due to existing global health disparities. Could this rapid AST technique be utilized in low-middle-income countries to slow the growing spread of multi-resistant bacteria? What would this mean for global health?
We are confident that ONMD-based AST testing can soon be implemented in research centers in both developed and developing countries. However, accreditation by the health authorities is necessary to use it as a standard diagnostic tool; this process can take several years, depending on the government health policy.
What’s next for you and your research? Are you involved in any exciting upcoming projects?
We want to develop a self-contained device for extreme environments. It would consist of a small microscope equipped with a camera and a data processing unit. The microfluidic part of the device could contain different antibiotics ready to be tested.
The ONMD technique could also monitor contamination levels in enclosed environments such as submarines, spacecraft, and space stations. One of our recent projects is funded by the European Space Agency (ESA) to develop a rapid antifungal susceptibility test that could work in microgravity. Additionally, ONMD could be used for even more exciting projects, such as chemistry-independent life detection in the search for extraterrestrial life.
Where can readers find more information?
Villalba MI, Rossetti E, Bonvallat A, Yvanoff C, Radonicic V, Willaert RG*, Kasas S.*.Simple optical nanomotion method for single-bacterium viability and antibiotic response testing. PNAS 2023, May 2;120(18):e2221284120. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2221284120. Epub 2023 Apr 24. PMID: 37094120. * Contributed equally. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2221284120
Radonicic, V.; Yvanoff, C.; Villalba, M.I.; Devreese, B.; Kasas, S.; Willaert, R.G. Single-Cell Optical Nanomotion of Candida albicans in Microwells for Rapid Antifungal Susceptibility Testing. Fermentation 2023, 9:365. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9040365
Parmar P, Villalba MI, Horii Huber AS, Kalauzi A, Bartolić D, Radotić K, Willaert RG, MacFabe DF and Kasas S. Mitochondrial nanomotion measured by optical microscopy. Front. Microbiol. 2023, 14:1133773. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1133773
Starodubtseva MN, Irina A. Chelnokova IA, Shkliarava NM, Villalba MI, Tapalski DV, Kasas S, Willaert RG. Modulation of the nanoscale motion rate of Candida albicans by X-rays. Front. Microbiol. 2023, 14:1133027. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1133027
Radonicic V, Yvanoff C, Villalba MI, Kasas S, Willaert RG. The Dynamics of Single-Cell Nanomotion Behaviour of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a Microfluidic Chip for Rapid Antifungal Susceptibility Testing. Fermentation. 2022; 8(5):195. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8050195
About Dr. Sandor Kasas
Nanomotion is a fascinating and novel approach to observing living organisms.
Our team focuses almost exclusively on recording the nanomotion of bacterial mitochondria and mammalian cells with optical and AFM-based devices.
Recently, we demonstrated that the technique could be used not only for fast antimicrobial sensitivity testing but also to explore the metabolism of unicellular organisms. We hope our efforts will permit us to expand the application domains of ONMD.
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SHENZHEN, China, 10 May 2023 – MGI Tech Co. Ltd. (MGI), a company committed to building core tools and technology to lead life science, today shared that a total of nearly 60,000 samples have been sequenced among 21 institutes and over 10 participating nations throughout Europe, as part of the Million Microbiome of Humans Project (MMHP) that was officially launched in 2019.
Image Credit: MGI
The project was launched as a joint effort by the Karolinska Institute of Sweden, Shanghai National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases in China, the University of Copenhagen in Denmark, Technical University of Denmark, MetaGenoPolis at the National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE) in France, and the Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Center. Relying on MGI’s core DNBSEQ™ technology, MMHP aims to sequence and analyze microbial DNA from a million human samples to construct a microbiome map of the human body and build the world’s largest human microbiome database.
The rise of microbial metagenomic sequencing
Since the first description of human microbiome was published in 2010, the field of human microbiome has moved fast from sampling hundreds of individuals to thousands. Advances in genome sequencing has enabled researchers to better characterize the composition of the microbiome through identification of unculturable microbes. It has also allowed them the opportunity to study how the microbiome influences the development of some cancers and drug responses.
Metagenomics, coupled with high-throughput sequencing technologies, have revolutionized microbial ecology. Today, metagenomic sequencing has become both a powerful and popular tool for identifying and classifying complex microbial communities. It facilitates accelerated discovery of new markers that translate to virulence or antibiotic resistance, as well as de novo discovery and characterization of novel species and assembly of new genomes. Besides human microbiome, it is highly applicable in agricultural microbiome studies, environmental microbiome studies, pathogen surveillance and identification, and monitoring of antimicrobial resistance genes.
Indeed, the global metagenomic sequencing market was estimated to be worth USD 1.86 billion in revenue in 2022 and is poised to reach USD 4.33 billion by 2027, growing at a CAGR of 18.4% during the forecast period. In particular, Europe and Africa account for approximately 29.7% market share from the globe, ranking second after North America at 45.6%. Thanks to continuous technological innovations in high-throughput sequencing platforms, the metagenomic sequencing market within Europe and Africa is projected to grow from USD 551.7 million in 2022 to 1.29 billion by 2027, presenting huge market opportunities and providing local institutions with the impetus to invest and get involved.
Image Credit: MGI
An optimized workflow with MGI’s cutting-edge technology
Equipped with MGI’s innovative lab systems, the MMHP Consortium guarantees high-throughput processes, extreme precision, and high quality data output. The dedicated, one-stop workflow begins with sample transfer on MGISTP-7000* high-throughput automated sample transfer processing system. It then goes through nucleic acid extraction and library preparation on MGISP-960 high-throughput automated sample preparation system, a flexible and fully automated workstation capable of processing 96 samples per run. MGISP-960’s fully automatic operation design allows DNA extraction of 50,000 samples per year and library preparation of 25,000 samples per year. MGISP-Smart 8, the professional automated pipetting robot, equipped with an independent 8 pipetting channel can be used for the pooling, normalization and DNB making. Lastly, DNBSEQ-T7* ultra-high throughput sequencer and DNBSEQ-G400* versatile benchtop sequencer enables an efficient, productive, and streamlined sequencing experience.
“We are very focused on data quality, cost and time. After contrasting DNBSEQ™ technology by MGI with other sequencing technologies, we are convinced that MGI’s products have met high industry standards and provide a very good user experience,” commented Professor Lars Engstrand, Research Director of Center for Microbial Translational Research (CMTR) at Karolinska Institutet. “MGI’s platforms have enabled our team to upgrade our original microbiological research from 16SrRNA gene amplicon sequencing to shotgun metagenomic sequencing. I look forward to introducing more equipment and super-large projects as human microbiome emerges as a crucial diagnostic and treatment method in precision medicine.”
The next chapter in microbiomics
“Microbiomics will be part of precision medicine in the future, and data from the microbiome biobank that will result from MMHP will be leveraged for therapeutic R&D,” said Professor Stanislav Dusko Ehrlich of University College London, UK. “With 21 public and private institutions and 10+ countries currently involved in MMHP, we are actively looking for more research groups to take part in this landmark international microbiological research partnership and help generate the world’s biggest free-access human microbiome database.”
Since the inception of MMHP, MGI has played an important role in providing the program with state-of-the-art research platforms and technologies. Now entering its second phase towards sequencing and analyzing a final total of one million samples, the project welcomes further exchange and participation from relevant organizations to jointly promote research and applications of cutting-edge translational medicine in the field of microbiome. Those interested can fill the application form on www.mgi-tech.eu/mmhp.
About MGI
MGI Tech Co. Ltd. (MGI), headquartered in Shenzhen, is committed to building core tools and technology to lead life science through intelligent innovation. Based on its proprietary technology, MGI focuses on research & development, production and sales of sequencing instruments, reagents, and related products to support life science research, agriculture, precision medicine and healthcare. MGI is a leading producer of clinical high-throughput gene sequencers*, and its multi-omics platforms include genetic sequencing*, medical imaging, and laboratory automation. MGI’s mission is to develop and promote advanced life science tools for future healthcare. For more information, please visit the MGI website or connect with us on Twitter, LinkedIn or YouTube.
*Unless otherwise informed, StandardMPS and CoolMPS sequencing reagents, and sequencers for use with such reagents are not available in Germany, Spain, UK, Sweden, Italy, Czech Republic, Switzerland and Hong Kong (CoolMPS is available in Hong Kong).
*For Research Use Only. Not for use in diagnostic procedures (except as specifically noted).
Sponsored Content by MGIMay 4 2023Reviewed by Olivia Frost
insights from industryDavide CacciharelliMolecular Biology and Genomics ProfessorUniversity of Naples
In this interview, Davide Cacchiarelli, Molecular Biology and Genomics Professor at the University of Naples talks to NewsMed about how the COVID pandemic has highlighted the vital role of genomic surveillance and improved genomics.
Please introduce yourself and what inspired your career in molecular biology and genomics?
My name is Davide Cacchiarelli, and I am a molecular biology and genomics professor at the University of Naples. I was inspired by the fact that genomics is classed as an effective tool to improve human health, dissect the molecular events happening in the cell and nucleus, and better understand how cells and organisms work.
Image Credit: ShutterStock/pinkeyes
In The Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine, you combine various disciplines with cell biology, molecular biology, and genomics. Why is having a multidisciplinary approach useful when making discoveries, particularly surrounding infectious diseases such as COVID?
The majority of the time, a single omic, measuring only gene expression by RNA sequencing, measuring only epigenetics, or measuring only phenotype, is insufficient to understand how a cell works.
The best solution is to combine all efforts to understand how these events happen, from the nucleus to the cell’s exterior. COVID, in particular, has been a case where acquiring one single omic or a single view of how the system works is ineffective in understanding how COVID behaviors occur in the population or clinically hospitalized patients.
We, therefore, try to combine the general information and patient outcome to get the best result regarding COVID infection.
Davide Cacciarelli at ICG17 – How the COVID pandemic has improved genomics
On what research areas are you and your team at TIGEM currently focusing?
Our group aims to answer various questions, from basic microbiology to developmental biology. Then we can re-engineer it for real regenerative medicine purposes. We also look at how we can effectively use genomics as a medical instrument that can be used to impact the healthcare of patients in our healthcare system.
You have recently co-authored a paper, “Improved SARS-CoV-2 sequencing surveillance allows the identification of new variants and signatures in infected patients.” Can you expand on that?
One of the significant issues in Italy regarding SARS-CoV-2 genome sequencing was the cost. Sequencing the COVID genome was also a tedious and elaborate procedure.
Image Credit: ShutterStock/Kateryna Kon
The main objective was first to make this approach economically affordable and create a proof of printing pulled by which this approach could become a cost-effective method for anyone and any country.
Our second approach, therefore, included integrating the genome information and the transcriptomic profiling of the patient airway epithelia. This helps us to understand how the genome evolves and allows us to track its evolution, in addition to seeing the response of the host respiratory epithelium. Finally, we implemented new ways to classify viral variants based on different characteristics using this approach.
What are the advantages of better identifying new cells, or two variants, for healthcare centers and patients?
The European Center for Disease Control has issued several requirements for next year focused on tracking respiratory viruses. One of these is tracking emerging variants as soon as possible, which we have done with COVID-19. We now know that new, specific variants can emerge in a short timeframe, so immediate tracking is crucial to help contain or at least delay the spreading of possible pathogenic variants.
MGI offers a variety of tools and technology surrounding genomics. Can you tell us more about some of the products used during your research and your experience with them?
At MGI, we have typically applied the COVID and whole genome solutions. We also have the freedom to test the stereo-seq they have in production this month. MGI can offer alternative solutions for various genome sequencing needs.
Image Credit: ShutterStock/peterschreiber.media
At present many sequencing genomic companies are coming up with different solutions. At MGI, we understand that the best genomic solution is the one that better fits your needs. With our experience, for example, with COVID, MGI had the right solution at the right moment.
How important is selecting the right sequencing technology for your research? When undertaking new research, what do you look for in a product/sequencer?
When the primary focus is not on identifying genes or mapping gene expression but on identifying or qualifying gene variants, there must be no issues in the sequencing, as the sequencing issue might be an error in the sequencing and misinterpreted data.
The error rate of MGI technology on DNB sequencing is extremely low, which offers significant benefits. Users can confidently rely on the data at the level of leaders in the field, which is what we look for when we start COVID genome sequencing.
You have often collaborated with other researchers throughout your research projects, especially concerning COVID. How vital have these collaborations been in accelerating your research?
Like many scientists who faced the COVID pandemic, I had much to learn. We used our knowledge in medical genetics and variant interpretation, and the crosstalk we had with virologists, MGI scientists, and genomic specialists was a step towards acquiring the best solution and the best effort to try to get those results as soon as possible, which is crucial for COVID sequencing.
Surprisingly, some scientists who had no interest in healthcare possessed knowledge valuable in tackling COVID issues. The circumstances and contingencies around the event forced them to think outside the box.
Do you believe that if we can understand SARS-CoV-2 better, we could better use this knowledge to prepare ourselves for future pandemics better? What advantages would this have for global health?
COVID did not give us any significant advantages for healthcare, but it may have for science. It highlighted how vital advanced genomics is to track diseases which influenced decisions at the governmental level.
Image Credit: ShutterStock/CKA
Today, several diseases require advanced genome sequencing, such as cancer diagnostics and medical genetics. Given that the issues with this problem affect a small population, you do not feel the urgency to improve specific knowledge or tests.
Therefore, the COVID pandemic has highlighted the vital role of genomic surveillance and improved genomics. Today, we have laboratories that, until two years ago, thought they could never afford to set up a genomic workflow; the pandemic forced them to enter the genomics field. Our mission as genomic scientists is to help them implement this solution in their lab because improving genomics in any lab is the best for healthcare in the future.
There is a saying, “omics for all.” As a scientist, what does that mean to you?
‘Omics for all’ has to be understood in two ways. It is critical to give everybody the chance to have access to omics. However, we need to remember that it is still a medical procedure. Thus, the omics flow offers everybody access to high-quality omics profiling of their genome, but under medical supervision.
Finally, what is the future for you in your research?
I will continue my basic research in my lab: studying how pluripotent cells and stem cells can be manipulated and organized for medical purposes. We also want to use the knowledge accumulated in the COVID pandemic to apply fast, cost-effective, and reliable genome sequencing to other types of screening.
Image Credit: ShutterStock/Anusorn Nakdee
With this in mind, we hope to screen for several hereditary cancers, for example, breast cancer inheritance. Therefore, we can effectively use the COVID strategies we set up for COVID sequencing as proof of principle to apply the sequencing to human and human disease-driving genes.
About MGI
MGI Tech Co., Ltd. (referred to as MGI) is committed to building core tools and technology to lead life science through intelligent innovation. MGI focuses on R&D, production, and sales of DNA sequencing instruments, reagents, and related products to support life science research, agriculture, precision medicine, and healthcare. MGI is a leading producer of clinical high-throughput gene sequencers, and its multi-omics platforms include genetic sequencing, mass spectrometry, medical imaging, and laboratory automation.
Founded in 2016, MGI has more than 1000 employees, nearly half of whom are R&D personnel. MGI operates in 39 countries and regions and has established multiple research and production bases around the world. Providing real-time, comprehensive, life-long solutions, its vision is to enable effective and affordable healthcare solutions for all.
Sponsored Content Policy: News-Medical.net publishes articles and related content that may be derived from sources where we have existing commercial relationships, provided such content adds value to the core editorial ethos of News-Medical.Net which is to educate and inform site visitors interested in medical research, science, medical devices and treatments.
A new study shows exactly how the gene BRCA2, linked to susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancer, functions to repair damaged DNA. By studying BRCA2 at the level of single molecules, researchers at the University of California, Davis, have generated new insights into the mechanisms of DNA repair and the origins of cancer. The work was published the week of March 27 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Elucidating the function of BRCA2 is essential for understanding the molecular etiology of cancer development in breast and ovarian cells, as well as many other cell types including prostate.”
Stephen Kowalczykowski, distinguished professor of microbiology and molecular genetics, UC Davis College of Biological Sciences
By visualizing BRCA2 function at a single molecule level, Kowalczykowski’s team discovered that it acts as a molecular chaperone, delivering another protein, RAD51, to single-stranded DNA. It ensures formation of a functional filament of RAD51 and the repair of broken DNA.
“When BRCA2 is defective, broken DNA is not faithfully repaired, the genome loses integrity, and cancer ultimately ensues,” Kowalczykowski said.
Mutations in the BRCA2 gene are linked to an increased risk of cancer, especially breast and ovarian cancer. In 2010, teams led by Kowalczykowski and by Professor Wolf-Dietrich Heyer in the same department at UC Davis succeeded in purifying the BRCA2 protein and showed that it plays a key role in DNA repair.
The new work, using techniques developed in Kowalczykowski’s lab to image single proteins and DNA molecules in real time, gives new insight into the mechanics of this repair process.
Our DNA is under constant assault by both processes inside cells and by outside factors, such as sunlight or chemical exposures. Accumulating damage to DNA can cause cells to become cancerous. Fortunately, our cells have several mechanisms to repair DNA. One of these is homologous recombination to repair double-stranded breaks.
Repairing double-stranded breaks
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When a break crosses both strands of the DNA double helix, one strand is trimmed back a little to leave a single exposed strand. This strand then goes hunting for its counterpart in the same gene in the matching paired chromosome. It inserts into the healthy DNA and uses it as a template for repair.
For this insertion to work, the single strand of DNA has to be coated with RAD51. Earlier work from Kowalczykowski’s lab measured how quickly RAD51 could be added onto DNA, like beads on a string.
The function of BRCA2 is to load up with RAD51 (each BRCA2 can carry up to six RAD51s), push another protein called RPA out of the way and put the proteins onto the DNA.
Postdoctoral researcher Jason Bell carried out the experiments observing RAD51 and BRCA2 working their way along the DNA. Bell manipulated pieces of DNA with a single-stranded gap and exposed them to RAD51 with and without BRCA2 under different conditions.
The resulting movies show how BRCA2 chaperones RAD51 onto single-stranded DNA, displacing RPA.
Understanding the role of BRCA2 in DNA repair has two important implications. First, it helps us understand why mutations of BRCA2 lead to an increased risk of cancer. Second, some drugs to treat cancer work by damaging DNA. By understanding how DNA repair works, we can develop new drugs to target it specifically in cancer cells.
Additional co-authors on the paper are Christopher Dombrowski and Jody Plank, both at UC Davis, and Ryan Jensen, formerly at UC Davis and now at the Yale University School of Medicine. The work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health.
Bell, J. C., et al. (2023). BRCA2 chaperones RAD51 to single molecules of RPA-coated ssDNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2221971120.
Global data shows nearly 10 per cent of severe COVID-19 cases involve a secondary bacterial co-infection – with Staphylococcus aureus, also known as Staph A., being the most common organism responsible for co-existing infections with SARS-CoV-2. Researchers at Western have found if you add a ‘superbug’ – methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) – into the mix, the COVID-19 outcome could be even more deadly.
The mystery of how and why these two pathogens, when combined, contribute to the severity of the disease remains unsolved. However, a team of Western researchers has made significant progress toward solving this “whodunit”.
New research by Mariya Goncheva, Richard M. Gibson, Ainslie C. Shouldice, Jimmy D. Dikeakos and David E. Heinrichs, has revealed that IsdA, a protein found in all strains of Staph A., enhanced SARS-CoV-2 replication by 10- to 15-fold. The findings of this study are significant and could help inform the development of new therapeutic approaches for COVID-19 patients with bacterial co-infections.
Interestingly, the study, which was recently published in iScience, also showed that SARS-CoV-2 did not affect the bacteria’s growth. This was contrary to what the researchers had initially expected.
We started with an assumption that SARS-CoV-2 and hospitalization due to COVID-19 possibly caused patients to be more susceptible to bacterial infections which eventually resulted in worse outcomes.”
Mariya Goncheva
Goncheva is a former postdoctoral associate, previously with the department of microbiology and immunology at Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry.
Goncheva said bacterial infections are most commonly acquired in hospital settings and hospitalization increases the risk of co-infection. “Bacterial infections are one of the most significant complications of respiratory viral infections such as COVID-19 and Influenza A. Despite the use of antibiotics, 25 per cent of patients co-infected with SARS-CoV-2 and bacteria, die as a result. This is especially true for patients who are hospitalized, and even more so for those in intensive care units. We were interested in finding why this happens,” said Goncheva, lead investigator of the study.
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Goncheva, currently Canada Research Chair in virology and professor of biochemistry and microbiology at the University of Victoria, studied the pathogenesis of multi-drug resistant bacteria (such as MRSA) supervised by Heinrichs, professor of microbiology and immunology at Schulich Medicine & Dentistry.
When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, she pivoted to study interactions between MRSA and SARS-CoV-2.
For this study, conducted at Western’s level 3 biocontainment lab, Imaging Pathogens for Knowledge Translation (ImPaKT), Goncheva’s work created an out-of-organism laboratory model to study the interactions between SARS-CoV-2 and MRSA, a difficult-to-treat multi-drug resistant bacteria.
“At the beginning of the pandemic, the then newly opened ImPaKT facility made it possible for us to study the interactions between live SARS-CoV-2 virus and MRSA. We were able to get these insights into molecular-level interactions due to the technology at ImPaKT,” said Heinrichs, whose lab focuses on MRSA and finding drugs to treat MRSA infections. “The next step would be to replicate this study in relevant animal models.”
Goncheva, M. I., et al. (2023). The Staphylococcus aureus protein IsdA increases SARS CoV-2 replication by modulating JAK-STAT signaling. IScience. doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.105975.
Although autism is a common neurodevelopmental disorder, the multiple factors behind its onset are still not fully understood. Animal models of idiopathic autism, especially mice, are often used to help researchers understand the complicated mechanisms behind the disorder, with BTBR/J being the most commonly used mouse model in the world.
Now, an international research collaboration including Kobe University’s Professor TAKUMI Toru and Researcher Chia-wen Lin et al. have made new discoveries regarding autism onset in mouse models.
In their detailed series of experiments and analyses of BTBR/J mice and the other subspecies BTBR/R, they revealed that endogenous retrovirus activation increases a fetus’s susceptibility to autism. They also discovered that BTBR/R exhibits autistic-like behaviors without reduced learning ability, making it a more accurate model of autism than the widely-used BTBR/J model.
It is hoped that further research will contribute towards better classification of autism types, as well as the creation of new treatment strategies for neurodevelopmental disorders.
These research results were published in Molecular Psychiatry on March 7, 2023
Main points
The researchers analyzed BTBR/J, a widely used mouse model of autism, and its subspecies BTBR/Rusing MRI. This revealed that the corpus callosum, which connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, was impaired in BTBR/J mice but not in BTBR/R mice.
Genome and transcription analysis showed that BTBR mice have increased levels of endogenous retrovirus genes.
Furthermore, single-cell RNA analysis of BTBR/R mice revealed changes in the expression of various genes (including stress response genes) that are indicative of endogenous retrovirus activation.
Even though BTBR/J and BTBR/R mice have the same ancestry, the results of various behavioral analysis experiments revealed differences in spatial learning ability and other behaviors between the two types of model mice.
Research background
Autism (autism spectrum disorder) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that remains largely unexplored despite the rapidly increasing number of patients. Reasons for this continuing increase in people diagnosed with autism include changes to diagnostic criteria and older fathers becoming more common. Autism is strongly related to genetic factors and can be caused by abnormalities in DNA structure, such as copy number variations. Animal models, especially mice, are often used in research to illuminate the pathology of autism. Among these models, BTBR/J is a mouse model of the natural onset of autism that is commonly used. Studies have reported various abnormalities in BTBR/J mice including impairment of the corpus callosum (which connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain) and excessive immune system signaling. However, it is not fully understood why this particular lineage displays autistic-like behavioral abnormalities.
The aim of the current study was to shed light on the onset mechanism of these autistic-like behavioral abnormalities by conducting comparative analysis on BTBR/J and its subspecies BTBR/R.
Research findings
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First of all, the researchers conducted MRI scans on BTBR/J and BTBR/R mice to investigate structural differences in each region of the brain. The results revealed that there were differences between BTBR/J and BTBR/R mice in 33 regions including the amygdala. A particularly prominent difference discovered was that even though BTBR/J’s corpus callosum is impaired, BTBR/R’s is normal.
Next, the research group used the array CGH method to compare BTBR/R’s copy number variations with that of a normal mouse model (B6). They revealed that BTBR/R mice had significantly increased levels of endogenous retroviruses (ERV) in comparison to B6 mice. Furthermore, qRT-PCR tests revealed that these retroviruses were activated in BTBR/R mice. On the other hand, in B6 mice there was no change in the expression of LINE ERV (which is classified in the same repetitive sequence), indicating that this retroviral activation is specific to BTBR.
Subsequently, the researchers carried out single-cell RNA analysis on the tissue of embryonic BTBR mice (on the AGM and yolk sac). The results provide evidence of ERV activation in BTBR mice, as expression changes were observed in a group of genes downstream of ERV.
Lastly, the researchers comprehensively investigated the differences between BTBR/J and BTBR/R on a behavioral level. BTBR/R mice were less anxious than BTBR/J and showed qualitative changes in ultrasound vocalizations, which are measured as a way to assess communicative ability in mice. BTBR/R mice also exhibited more self-grooming behaviors and buried more marbles in the marble burying test. These two tests were designed to detect repetitive behavioral abnormalities in autistic individuals. From the results, it was clear that BTBR/R exhibits more repetitive behaviors (i.e. it is more symptomatic) than BTBR/J. The 3-chamber social interaction test, which measures how closely a mouse will approach another mouse, also revealed more pronounced social deficits in BTBR/R than BTBR/J mice (Figure 4i). In addition, a Barnes maze was used to conduct a spatial learning test, in which BTBR/J mice exhibited reduced learning ability compared to B6 (normal mice). BTBR/R mice, on the other hand, exhibited similar ability to B6.
Overall, the study revealed that retrovirus activation causes the copy number variants in BTBR mice to increase, which leads to the differences in behavior and brain structure seen in BTBR/J and BTBR/R mice (Figure 5).
Further developments
BTBR/J mice are widely used by researchers as a mouse model of autism. However, the results of this study highlight the usefulness of the other lineage of BTBR/R mice because they exhibit autistic-like behavior without compromised spatial learning ability. The results also suggest that it may be possible to develop new treatments for autism that suppress ERV activation. Furthermore, it is necessary to classify autism subtypes according to their onset mechanism, which is a vital first step towards opening up new avenues of treatment for autism.
Lin, C-W., et al. (2023) An old model with new insights: endogenous retroviruses drive the evolvement toward ASD susceptibility and hijack transcription machinery during development. Molecular Psychiatry.doi.org/10.1038/s41380-023-01999-z.
Antibiotics can destroy many types of bacteria, but increasingly, bacterial pathogens are gaining resistance to many commonly used types. As the threat of antibiotic resistance looms large, researchers have sought to find new antibiotics and other ways to destroy dangerous bacteria. But new antibiotics can be extremely difficult to identify and test. Bacteriophages, which are viruses that only infect bacterial cells, might offer an alternative. Bacteriophages (phages) were studied many years ago, before the development of antibiotic drugs, and they could help us once again.
If we are going to use bacteriophages in the clinic to treat humans, we should understand how they work, and how bacteria can also become resistant to them. Microbes are in an arms race with each other, so while phages can infect bacteria, some bacterial cells have found ways to thwart the effects of those phages. New research reported in Nature Microbiology has shown that when certain bacteria carry a specific genetic mutation, phages don’t work against them anymore.
In this study, the researchers used a new technique so they could actually see a phage attacking bacteria. Mycobacteriophages infect Mycobacterial species, including the pathogens Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium abscessus, as well as the harmless Mycobacterium smegmatis, which was used in this research.
The scientists determined that Mycobacterial gene called lsr2 is essential for many mycobacteriophages to successfully infect Mycobacteria. Mycobacteria that carry a mutation that renders the Lsr2 protein non-functional are resistant to these phages.
Normally, Lsr2 aids in DNA replication in bacterial cells. Bacteriophages can harness this protein, however, and use it to reproduce the phage’s DNA. Thus, when Lsr2 stops working, the phage cannot replicate and it cannot manipulate bacterial cells.
In the video above, by first study author Charles Dulberger, a genetically engineered mutant phage infects Mycobacterium smegmatis. First, one phage particle (red dot at 0.42 seconds) binds to a bacterium. The phage DNA (green fluorescence) is injected into the bacterial cell (2-second mark). The bright green dots at the cells’ ends are not relevant. For a few seconds, the DNA forms a zone of phage replication, and fills the cell. Finally, the cell explodes at 6:25 seconds. (About three hours have been compressed to make this video.)
The approach used in this study can also be used to investigate other links between bacteriophages and the bacteria they infect.
“This paper focuses on just one bacterial protein,” noted co-corresponding study author Graham Hatfull, a Professor at the University of Pittsburgh. But there are many more opportunities to use this technique. “There are lots of different phages and lots of other proteins.”
Scientists at La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI) have uncovered the structure and function of the first FDA-approved treatment for Zaire ebolavirus (Ebola virus).
Inmazeb (REGN-EB3), developed by Regeneron, is a three-antibody cocktail designed to target the Ebola virus glycoprotein. The drug was first approved for clinical use in October 2020, but its exact mechanism of action has remained unclear.
In the cover story of the latest issue of Cell Host & Microbe, LJI researchers present a high-resolution, 3D structure of the three antibodies as they bind to the Ebola virus glycoprotein (the viral protein that launches Ebola virus infection). The model reveals new information about both the drug and the virus, and how their interaction fights infection and protects against future viral mutations.
Before this, we had a general idea of what the drug was doing, but we didn’t know exactly how. We now know which specific amino acids the antibodies are latching onto and how their binding affects the viral glycoprotein.”
Ollmann Saphire, Ph.D., LJI President and CEO, Study’s Senior Author
The new research also shows the potential for Inmazeb in treating additional species of Ebolavirus.
The new study shows how three antibodies (light blue, dark blue, and yellow) used in Inmazeb (REGN-EB3) bind to different regions of the Ebola virus glycoprotein (grey) to combat infection. Image credit: Ethan MacKenzie (Phospho Biomedical Animation)
How the antibody cocktail works
At 3.1 angstroms, the 3D structure is the highest-resolution image of the Ebola virus surface protein ever assembled using asymmetric reconstruction. The researchers achieved this detailed view through an imaging technique called cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM).
“It’s like getting mugshots of a protein,” said first author Vamseedhar Rayaprolu, Ph.D., who spearheaded the project as a postdoctoral associate at LJI and now serves at The Pacific Northwest Center for Cryo-EM. “We take photos of the complex that is frozen in all different angles and then stitch them together to get a 3D model.”
Thanks to these images, the LJI team immediately made a discovery not just about the drug, but also about Ebola virus itself. While the overall structure of the Ebola glycoprotein has been known for some time, one region had yet to be modeled effectively-;the β17-β18 loop on the protein’s glycan cap.
“This piece is normally too floppy to be imaged,” said Rayaprolu, “but when the antibodies were bound to the virus, they locked the loop into place and we were able to finally capture its location and structure.”
The team then confirmed that the drug’s three antibodies bind the glycoprotein at distinct, non-overlapping locations, maximizing their effectiveness by minimizing their redundancy.
Atoltivimab (REGN3470) is the specific antibody that binds the β17-β18 loop. When bound, this antibody can serve as a signal to attract the immune system, flagging infected cells to be killed via effector functions.
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A second antibody, called odesivimab (REGN3471), binds to amino acids on the glycoprotein’s receptor-binding site, preventing the virus from attaching itself to human cells.
The third antibody, called maftivimab (REGN3479), binds and warps the glycoprotein’s internal fusion loop, which the virus requires to drive itself into a cell. The researchers also found evidence that maftivimab may be valuable in future therapies against other types of Ebolaviruses.
Fighting more than one virus
“Like with SARS-CoV-2, Ebola virus has changed over time and become different than the original virus,” says study collaborator Robert Davey, Ph.D., Professor in the National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories (NEIDL), of the Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine. As Davey points out, Ebola viruses aren’t the only dangerous members of the larger Filovirus family. This family includes closely related Ebolavirus species, such as Sudan ebolavirus (a 2022 outbreak of Sudan ebolavirus killed at least 55 people in Uganda) and the more distantly related Marburg virus.
Through a series of escape studies led by study collaborators in Davey’s lab and at Regeneron, the team found that Inmazeb could potentially protect against several viruses in the Ebolavirus genus of Filoviruses, including Sudan ebolavirus.
The key appears to be the maftivimab antibody. Maftivimab’s target, the viral glycoprotein’s internal fusion loop, is conserved across these Ebolaviruses. This means the loop structure has not changed significantly, even as other parts of the virus have mutated over time.
“We found that, in general, the antibodies in Inmazeb could be effective against the more closely related viruses,” says Davey. “But for the more distantly related species, such as Marburg, more work needs to be done to devise a new antibody cocktail.”
Could Inmazeb also combat new Ebola virus variants? The researchers found that-;in the presence of all three antibodies-;Ebola virus has to undergo ten rounds of replication and multiple mutations to partially escape the effects of the drug. In contrast, using any single antibody alone leads to escape mutations within only one or two passages.
This finding suggests that Inmazeb can provide lasting immunity against variants. The new findings may also guide the development of novel antibody drugs that target the glycoprotein more broadly or effectively.
“We now understand how subtle shifts in the landing site of different antibodies impact function,” says Rayaprolu. “This tells us the differences between more or less effective immune responses.”
“Knowing exactly where a drug contacts the virus helps us predict whether it is likely to still work on a new viral variant,” adds Saphire. “These methods and the insights from our research collaborators will be integral to the development of next-generation vaccines.”
Rayaprolu, V., et al. (2023) Structure of the Inmazeb cocktail and resistance to Ebola virus escape. Cell Host & Microbe.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2023.01.002.
In a recent review published in Nature Reviews Microbiology, researchers explored existing literature on long coronavirus disease (COVID). They highlighted key immunological findings, similarities with other diseases, symptoms, associated pathophysiological mechanisms, and diagnostic and therapeutic options, including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccinations.
Long COVID refers to a multisystemic disease among SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2)-positive individuals, with increasing prevalence rates by the day. Studies have reported on long COVID risk factors, symptoms, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment options, with increasing similarities between long COVID and other diseases such as POTS (postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome) and ME/CFS (myalgic encephalomyelitis/ chronic fatigue syndrome).
About the review
In the present review, researchers explored the existing data on long COVID immunology, symptoms, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and therapeutic options.
Key long COVID findings and similarities with other diseases
Studies have reported persistently reduced exhausted T lymphocytes, dendritic cells, cluster of differentiation 4+ (CD4+) lymphocyte and CD8+ lymphocyte counts, and greater PD1 (programmed cell death protein-1) expression. In addition, increase in innate cell immunological activities, non-classical monocytes, expression of interferons (IFNs)-β, λ1, and interleukins (IL)-1β, 4,6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Cytotoxic T lymphocyte expansion has been linked to gastrointestinal long COVID symptoms, and persistent increase in CCL11 (C-X-C motif chemokine 11) expression has been linked to cognitive dysfunction among long COVID patients.
Elevated autoantibody titers have been reported among long COVID patients, such as autoantibodies against ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2), angiotensin II receptor type I (AT1) receptors, β2-adrenoceptors, angiotensin 1–7 Mas receptors, and muscarinic M2 receptors. Reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and human herpes virus-6 (HHV-6) has been reported in long COVID patients and ME/CFS. EBV reactivation has been linked to neurocognitive impairments and fatigue in long COVID.
SARS-CoV-2 persistence reportedly drives long COVID symptoms. SARS-CoV-2 proteins and/or ribonucleic acid (RNA) have been detected in cardiovascular, reproductive, cranial, ophthalmic, muscular, lymphoid, hepatic, and pulmonary tissues, and serum, breast, urine, and stool obtained from long COVID patients. Similar immunological patterns are noted between long COVID and ME/CFS, with elevated cytokine levels in the initial two to three years of disease, followed by reduction with time, without symptomatic improvements in ME/CFS. Lower cortisol levels, mitochondrial dysfunction, post-exertional malaise, dysautonomia, mast cell activation, platelet hyperactivation, hypermobility, endometriosis, menstrual alterations, and intestinal dysbiosis occur in both conditions.
Long COVID symptoms and underlying pathophysiological mechanisms
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Long COVID-associated organ damage reportedly results from COVID-19-induced inflammation and associated immune responses. Cardiovascular long COVID symptoms such as chest pain and palpitations have been associated with endothelial dysfunction, micro-clotting, and lowered vascular density. Long COVID has been associated with an increased risk of renal damage and type 2 diabetes. Ophthalmic symptoms of long COVID, including altered pupillary responses to light, result from the loss of small nerve fibers in the cornea, increased dendritic cell density, and impaired retinal microvasculature. Respiratory symptoms such as persistent cough and breathlessness result from altered pulmonary perfusion, epithelial injury, and air entrapment in the airways.
Cognitive and neurological long COVID symptoms include loss of memory, cognitive decline, sleep difficulties, paresthesia, balancing difficulties, noise and light sensitivity, tinnitus, and taste and/or smell loss. Underlying pathophysiological mechanisms include kynurenine pathway activation, endothelial injury, coagulopathy, lower cortisol levels, loss of myelin, microglial reactivation, oxidative stress, hypoxia, and tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency. Gastrointestinal symptoms such as pain in the abdomen, nausea, appetite loss, constipation, and heartburn have been associated with elevated Bacteroides vulgatus and Ruminococcus gnavus counts and lower Faecalibacterium prausnitzii counts. Neurological symptoms often have a delayed onset, worsen with time and persist longer than respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms, and long COVID presents similarly in children and adults.
Diagnostic and therapeutic options for long COVID, including COVID-19 vaccines
The diagnosis and treatment of long COVID are largely symptom-based, including tilt tests for POTS, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to detect cardiovascular and pulmonary impairments, and electrocardiograms to detect QRS complex fragmentation. Salivary tests and serological tests, including red blood cell deformation, lipid profile, complete blood count, D-dimer, and C-reactive protein (CRP) evaluations, can be performed to assess immunological biomarker levels. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) analysis is used for SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection and quantification, and antibody testing is performed to assess humoral immune responses against SARS-CoV-2.
Pharmacological treatments include intravenous Ig for immune dysfunction, low-dosage naltrexone for neuronal inflammation, beta-blockers for POTS, anticoagulants for microclot formation, and stellate ganglion blockade for dysautonomia. Other options include antihistamines, paxlovid, sulodexide, and pycnogenol. Non-pharmacological options include cognitive pacing for cognitive impairments, diet limitations for gastrointestinal symptoms, and increasing salt consumption for POTS. COVID-19 vaccines have conferred minimal protection against long COVID, the development of which depends on the causative SARS-CoV-2 variant, and the number of vaccination doses received. Long COVID has been reported more commonly post-SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2 subvariant infections.
Based on the review findings, long COVID is a multiorgan disease that has debilitated several lives worldwide, for which diagnostic and therapeutic options are inadequate. The findings underscored the need for future studies, clinical trials, improved education, mass communication campaigns, policies, and funding to reduce the future burden of long COVID.
